UK’s Space Technologies

Space technology plays a pivotal role in advancing the UK’s economic interests and ensuring national security. Space technology that has particular relevance to national security, and is being developed at pace by the UK’s flourishing small companies includes small satellites, indigenous launch and spaceports, sustainable space initiatives, space-developed biopharmaceuticals and secure communications. With a focus on making the intersection of space technology, security and sustainability readily understandable, this briefing aims to provide non-specialist policymakers with insights into the strategic opportunities and challenges shaping the UK’s technological space future.

Demystifying (Some) Space Technology

National and Geopolitical Relevance of Space Technology

The UK’s investment in space technologies underscores their importance in a rapidly shifting global landscape. Spacepower is a cornerstone of national security, with satellites supporting critical infrastructure such as finance, navigation and defence systems. Geopolitically, as espoused in the National Space Strategy, the Defence Space Strategy and the Space Industrial Plan, the UK aims to position itself as a leader in sustainable and responsible space use, balancing commercial opportunities with ethical considerations.

By prioritising small companies and fostering innovation, the UK not only strengthens its national security but also contributes to a sustainable, inclusive global space economy. Doing so offers a strategic edge by providing resilience and adaptability in an increasingly contested and congested domain.

The technologies underpinning the future of UK space power – small satellite design and manufacture, innovative bio-fuelled and reusable launch systems, sustainable space practices and space-developed biopharmaceuticals – are at the forefront of a global shift in how space assets are developed, deployed and used. These technologies have expanded access to space, enabling not only governments but also small companies and start-ups to participate in shaping the future of space-based capabilities and security interests pinned to space.

To understand the foundational role of small satellite design and manufacture, launch systems and sustainable space practices in the UK’s National Security Strategy, the technical underpinnings of these innovations must be explored. These technologies are interconnected and mutually reinforcing, forming a cohesive framework for the UK’s ambitions in space power and national security.

Basics of Space Technology: Small Satellite Design and Manufacture, Core Components and Functions

The UK rightly maintains a focus on small satellites and their launch capabilities because they offer a cost-effective, agile platform for enhancing telecommunications, Earth observation and national security capabilities, driving technological innovation and economic growth in the burgeoning space sector.

Small satellites have evolved and are designed to perform specific functions within constrained sizes, ranging from femtosatellites (0.001–0.01 kg) to minisatellites (100–180 kg). They are equipped with miniaturised sensors, processors and communication systems to fulfil specialised roles such as Earth observation or communication. A critical enabler of their functionality is the integration of advanced materials, miniaturisation technologies and efficient power systems.

Small satellites in particular rely on advanced miniaturisation technologies to pack essential components into their compact frames. These are:

• Payload: This is the functional heart of the satellite, including sensors, cameras and communication systems. For example, optical sensors are used for Earth observation, while radio frequency receivers can support signals intelligence.

  • Earth observation payloads: The UK excels in the development of advanced hyperspectral imaging sensors and synthetic aperture radar (SAR) systems, enabling satellites to capture high-resolution, multi-spectrum data for applications in agriculture, climate monitoring and disaster response. Surrey Satellite Technology Limited (SSTL) is renowned for developing hyperspectral imaging sensors and compact payloads for Earth observation, used in missions such as the Disaster Monitoring Constellation.

  • Communications payloads: UK firms such as Inmarsat and OneWeb are leading in designing next-generation communication payloads, incorporating phased array antennas and software-defined radio technologies to deliver flexible, high-bandwidth connectivity across the globe.

• Power systems: Most small satellites are equipped with solar panels to generate power and rechargeable batteries for energy storage. Advances in efficient solar cell technologies allow even small satellites to operate robustly in space.

  • While many small satellites operate passively, some include propulsion systems for orbit adjustments. Many UK-designed small satellites use electric propulsion technologies such as ion thrusters and Hall-effect thrusters, which offer high efficiency and precise manoeuvrability for tasks such as orbital adjustments and station-keeping while consuming minimal fuel.

  • UK companies such as Nammo UK are developing innovative green monopropellant propulsion systems that use environmentally friendly fuels, such as LMP-103S, to provide reliable thrust for small satellites while reducing toxic by-products and storage hazards associated with traditional propellants.

• Onboard processing and communication: Miniaturised processors and antennas enable satellites to perform data collection, processing and transmission autonomously, reducing dependence on ground stations.

  • AAC Clyde Space develops onboard communication subsystems, including high-performance radios and transceivers, designed for reliable data downlink in smallsat constellations.

  • Archangel Lightworks is an innovative UK company focusing on free-space optical communications, enabling high-speed data transfer between satellites and ground stations using laser-based systems.

Applications of Small Satellites in National Security

Small satellites are pivotal in national security due to their flexibility and deployability. The UK could use them for:

• ISR: Satellites like those from SSTL provide real-time imagery and intelligence for military operations.

• Secure communications: Small satellites can be used to form resilient communication networks, ensuring connectivity during emergencies or hostile actions.

• Supplementing Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS): Developed in tandem with multi-constellation GNSS receivers, by reducing reliance on prominent Medium Earth Orbit Positioning Navigation and Timing constellations such as GPS, the UK could increase PNT resilience and deterrence by denial.

• Early warning for disaster monitoring: Small satellites could be used to enhance satellite capabilities to alert first responders and government officials within minutes of a disaster – such as floods, fires or landslides – at home or in overseas interests.

▲ Figure 1: Some basic components commonly found in a smallsats. Source: RUSI. Image credits: Bus/frame: Northrop Grumman / Flickr; Batteries: Raimond Spekking /Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 4.0; Computer: Pixabay; Thrusters: NASA Ames / Dana Berry / Flickr; Radio GPS: Public Domain Dedication; Camera: Mariuszms / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 4.0.

Space Launch Systems

It may seem obvious, but a satellite that remains tethered to terra has little purpose. Satellites need to be in space; thus, the success of small satellites depends on reliable and adaptable launch systems. The UK’s renewed focus on launch capability – highlighted by the development of spaceports such as Spaceport Cornwall and SaxaVord Spaceport – signals its commitment to ensuring sovereign access to space.

Innovations in Launch Technology

Launch vehicles designed for small satellites are smaller, lighter and more efficient than traditional rockets. Notable features include:

• Dedicated launches: Unlike shared launches, dedicated systems transport small payloads to specific orbits, offering greater control and responsiveness.

• Reusable components: As demonstrated by SpaceX and adopted by UK-based start-ups, innovations such as reusable rocket stages significantly reduce costs.

• Eco-friendly propulsion: Orbex, for example, a UK-based orbital launch services company, is developing rockets using bio-propane, a low-carbon alternative to traditional rocket fuels.

Applications in National Security

Launch systems enable rapid deployment of small satellites, which is crucial during crises or conflicts. For instance, if adversaries disrupt satellite constellations, quick-response launch capabilities can replace or augment assets, maintaining critical services such as communication and ISR.

Sustainable Space Practices

With 40,500 pieces of debris (greater than 10 cm) and 130 million pieces of debris (between 1 mm and 1 cm) in orbit, sustainable space practices are no longer optional – they are imperative. The UK has already taken a global leadership role in promoting responsible space stewardship through policy, innovation and international diplomacy, and it should be noted that the UK led the work for UN General Assembly Resolution 75/36, “Reducing Space Threats Through Norms, Rules and Principles of Responsible Behaviours”.

Technical Approaches to Sustainability

• Space debris mitigation: Companies such as 3S Northumbria are designing sustainable space solutions, including space surveillance systems and supporting software, grounded in the principles of a circular economy for space, with space situational awareness at the heart of the work.

• Design for disposal: New satellites are engineered for planned decommissioning. Lightweight materials and controlled de-orbiting mechanisms ensure minimal long-term impact.

• Propellant-free manoeuvring: Emerging technologies use solar sails or other innovative means for orbit adjustments without traditional propulsion.

National Security Implications

Sustainability of space is not only about ethics; it should be a national security priority. Space debris directly threatens active satellites, including those essential to defence and intelligence. The UK’s emphasis on sustainability ensures its assets are protected while setting a global standard for responsible space exploration.

Intersections with Other Technologies

The technologies driving UK space power – small satellites, launch systems and sustainable practices – intersect with transformative fields such as AI, quantum technologies, advanced telecommunications and additive manufacturing. These intersections amplify the capabilities of these technologies, enabling innovative applications across civil and national security domains.

AI

AI enhances the functionality of small satellites by enabling autonomous decision-making, real-time data analysis and efficient constellation management. For example, AI-driven algorithms can optimise satellite orbits to avoid collisions or adjust sensor focus for targeted intelligence collection. This reduces the need for constant ground control and increases operational resilience.

Quantum Technologies

Quantum computing and quantum communication, as led by UK company Arqit, are reshaping satellite security. Quantum key distribution (QKD), a breakthrough in encryption, ensures unbreakable communication links. Integrating QKD into small satellites offers secure communications for defence applications, safeguarding critical infrastructure against cyber threats.

Advanced Telecommunications

Small satellites underpin the development of global communication networks, particularly in underserved areas. They intersect with 5G and future 6G networks to deliver high-speed, resilient connectivity. This capability supports not only commercial markets but also secure military communications and remote operations.

Additive Manufacturing

Additive manufacturing, or 3D printing, accelerates the production of satellite components and launch vehicles. This technology enables rapid prototyping, lightweight designs and cost-efficient manufacturing, allowing UK start-ups to innovate and compete globally.

Relevance of Technologies for National Security

The suite of technologies encompassing small satellite design, launch systems and sustainable space practices plays a critical role in enhancing the UK’s national security. These technologies contribute to strategic resilience, geopolitical influence and the safeguarding of critical infrastructure in an increasingly contested and competitive space domain.

Strategic and Geopolitical Implications

Space is recognised as critically important to national security. Small satellites and launch capabilities provide the UK with a sovereign ability to monitor, communicate and respond to threats, ensuring strategic independence from international providers. Geopolitically, the UK’s leadership in sustainable space initiatives, such as promoting norms of responsible behaviour at the UN (for example, Resolution 75/36), positions it as a global leader in ethical space governance.

Dependencies and Supply Chains

National security is intricately tied to the resilience of supply chains for satellite components and launch systems. The UK relies on small domestic companies, such as SSTL and In-Space Missions, to build satellites. However, certain materials and technologies, such as high-performance processors and radiation-hardened components, still depend on imports. Mitigating these dependencies requires investment in domestic production capabilities and securing international partnerships.

Public Perception and Policy Questions

Public discussions around space often centre on its benefits – connectivity, climate monitoring and disaster response – but awareness of its security implications is growing. Questions about the growing militarisation of space, space debris and competition with countries such as China and Russia are shaping policy debates. A transparent and balanced approach to national security, aligned with ethical and sustainable space practices, reduces the risk of security dilemma while strengthening public trust and political legitimacy.

Collaborations and International Engagements

The UK actively collaborates on international initiatives that bolster its space capabilities. Partnerships with organisations such as the European Space Agency, the Five Eyes intelligence alliance and NATO support the development of cutting-edge technologies and strategic interoperability. The UK Space Agency also engages with global investment programmes to fund innovation and ensure access to emerging markets.

UK Research and Development Hubs

The UK is home to a vibrant ecosystem of research and development hubs focused on space technology. Notable centres include:

• Harwell Space Cluster: A leading hub for satellite innovation, based in Oxfordshire, this group hosts more than 100 organisations working on small satellite development, AI integration and sustainable space solutions.

• Space North East England: A cluster that brings together businesses, academia and institutions to unlock the opportunities within the space sector in the region. Includes vibrant multi-disciplinary research at NE universities.

• Satellite Applications Catapult: Based in Oxfordshire, this organisation bridges research and industry, accelerating the commercialisation of space technologies.

Leading Companies and Promising Start-Ups

The UK’s private sector is instrumental in advancing space power. Organisations include:

• SSTL: A pioneer in small satellite development, providing platforms for national security applications.

• Orbex: A developer of eco-friendly launch vehicles, enabling rapid deployment of satellites while reducing environmental impact.

• Skyrora: A business focused on small satellite launches, leveraging innovative propulsion systems for cost-effective solutions.

• 3S Northumbria: A start-up driving sustainable practices through debris mitigation and end-of-life satellite solutions.

• BioOrbit: A company harnessing the benefits of microgravity for large-scale crystallisation of protein drugs, enabling the shift from intravenous (IV) to subcutaneous (SC) injection.

▲ Figure 2: Orbex Reuseable Prime Rocket for Small Satellite Launches from Scotland. Source: Orbex.

Future Developments and Horizon Scanning

The future of UK space power could be defined by accelerated innovation and strategic investment in transformative technologies, with small satellites, sustainable practices and advanced sustainable launch capabilities at the forefront.

Five-Year Horizon

In the next five years, miniaturisation, AI integration and propulsion advancements will enable smaller, more efficient satellites with enhanced capabilities. The launch sector will become more agile, with domestic spaceports and eco-friendly propulsion systems, such as those developed by Orbex and Skyrora, enabling frequent and sustainable access to orbit. The UK could lead the space and pharmaceutical industry with companies such as BioOrbit, headed by Katie King, which aims to be the go-to pharmaceuticals factory in microgravity, part of the space manufacturing revolution, and is currently developing a platform for large-scale crystallisation of protein drugs. Sustainable space development from UK Space thought leaders such as Ralph “Dinz” Dinsley at 3S Northumbria could pave the way for the UK to be a world leader in circular economy in space – which in turn would increase soft-power elements of national security.

10-Year Horizon

By 2034, small satellite constellations will dominate low Earth orbit, providing ubiquitous high-speed connectivity and supporting real-time global intelligence operations. Quantum communication and AI-driven autonomous satellites will further enhance civil and defence applications, while effective debris mitigation technologies will ensure sustainable orbital management.

20-Year Horizon

In 20 years, fully autonomous satellite constellations, powered by AI, will transform space operations. Sustainable manufacturing and biotechnology innovations could enable in-orbit production of critical resources, reducing reliance on Earth-based supply chains. The UK’s investments today will ensure leadership in these areas, fostering a secure, innovative and sustainable space future. BioOrbit’s innovations could even extend to bioregenerative life support systems for long-duration space missions.

Clifford Fletcher-Jones is a retired Royal Air Force wing commander with more than 14 years’ experience in military space operations. He has been mission-qualified in 10 operational space roles. Clifford has three Master’s degrees and is a Visiting Fellow at the Institute of Advanced Studies, a Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society and a Chartered Fellow of the Chartered Management Institute. He has lectured internationally on spacepower, space warfare and strategy.